The Upaniṣads are the earliest source Vedic texts wherein can be found the roots of all later Hinduism. It is in these texts that we find notions such as yoga, karma, mokśa, ātman, reincarnation, bhakti, etc., first expressed. All later Hindu schools of yoga trace their origins back to the Upaniṣads, so they stand as the foundation of all traditional Hindu spirituality. Thus it is in the Upaniṣads where we find the earliest and most sacrosanct references to meditational practices that are the clear forerunners of what Patañjali later further systematizes and embellishes in his Yoga Sūtras. The Upaniṣads are also the main canonical texts for the variegated Vedānta traditions of the next session II.

The course will also consider the opening verses of the Vedānta Sūtra, a text which sets out to systematize the unsystematic material of the Upaniṣads with regard to the nature of Brahman, the Ultimate Truth Here we will encounter the interpretative lenses of two important Vedānta traditions - that of advaita (non-dualist) Vedānta and that of the viśiśtādvaita tradition (the lineage from which the renowned Krishnamacarya hailed), which allows a more dualist understanding of the relationship between brahman īśvara and the ātman.

This will engage the primary canonical text of Såmkhya, which is the larger metaphysical tradition within which Yoga was originally a branch before it came to be situated as an independent school. Sāṃkhya concerns itself with the metaphysics from which the deep-level self - the puruśa/ātman - must extricate itself - e.g. what the puruśa is not. This will engage the primary canonical text of Såmkhya, which is the larger metaphysical tradition within which Yoga was originally a branch before it came to be situated as an independent school. Sāṃkhya concerns itself with the metaphysics from which the deep-level self - the puruśa/ātman - must extricate itself - e.g. what the puruśa is not.

This course will undertake a close reading of yoga as presented in the traditional Hindu sourcebook on the subject, the 3rd century Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, where it is defined as “the stilling of all states of mind” (i.e. meditative practices), in order to arrive at a direct experience of the 'soul' or ātman, that is to say, of pure consciousness. The Yoga Sūtras is the classical text on meditative practice accepted as authoritative by all the orthodox Hindu schools, and our reading of it will be informed by the primary commentaries that have elaborated on the source text over the centuries prior to the colonial period. Here, we will encounter what yoga has meant in Indian traditions for two millennia prior to being transplanted to the West, where the Yoga Sūtras has since become the canonical text for western yoga.

Vaiśesika and Mīmāmsā are archaic schools - the former dealing with the metaphysical ingredients of the world - sub-atomic particles, forces, etc.; and the latter with Dharma, human Duty, as understood in the context of the ancient Vedic ritualistic culture. Unlike the other sessions of this course, these two texts may be of less interest to modern day yoga practitioners - we will see how we feel when we get to them- but if we decide these traditions are of little interest to us, we can briefly overview them and then continue with the Yoga Sūtras. They are included in this course for completeness - so that students can get at least some sense of the so-called "Six Schools of Indian Philosophy."

Nyāya is the rationalist school of Vaidic Philosophy i.e., the intellectual tradition prioritizing anumāṇa, logic/inference. All schools acknowledge that only yoga or practices leading to direct personal experience will prove to a practitioner the claims made by scripture - such as the existence of a soul or God. But, in the face of challenges by e.g. Buddhists and materialists, Nyāya uses that logic and reason to argue that a stronger case can be made for the existence of such entities rather than any philosophy denying their reality. Thus, Nyāya stresses the importance of using coherent reason and clear thinking to choose our yogic path and metaphysics. This is all the more so given the counterclaims made by other intellectual traditions (including some in our own day and age) which argue that beliefs in a non-material soul or God are irrational and outdated forms of thought - Nyāya's arguments are still very much relevant to modern discussions on such topics. In this session, we will also encounter the debates between the Buddhists and Vedic schools.

The Bhagavad Gītā is perhaps the most representative and certainly the most influential and popular text from the numerous and varied spiritual traditions of Hindu India. Spoken by Lord Krishna to Arjuna who is undergoing a moment of crisis, the text deals with the nature of the self, the world, ultimate reality, the purpose of human existence, and the spiritual paths that can be undertaken to accomplish this purpose. One can schematize the teachings into four such paths, or yoga systems, featured in the text, through which one can unite with the Divine: the path of self-knowledge, jnāna yoga; the path of action in the world, karma yoga; the path of meditation, rāja/dhyāna yoga; and the path of theistic devotion, bhakti yoga. This session will undertake a detailed discussion of these four yoga systems, with contextual references to the background of the text and referencing the major streams of Hindu thought covered in the earlier sessions.

This final session will continue the discussion from module 7 on the Bhagavad Gītā and stories from the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Taking up the detailed discussion of these four yoga systems, featured in the text, through which one can unite with the Divine: the path of self-knowledge, jnāna yoga; the path of action in the world, karma yoga; the path of meditation, rāja/dhyāna yoga; and the path of theistic devotion, bhakti yoga, with contextual references to the background of the text and referencing the major streams of Hindu thought covered in the earlier sessions.